Methods of Studying Psychology of Learning

METHODS OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Introduction

Dear students in the preceding section, you have analyzed the nature, definition, scope and function of psychology of learning. We have also discussed the psychological concept of learning. In this chapter, we will describe the important methods of studying psychology of learning. Students all the method to study psychology of learning are basically methods of general psychology.

A brief review of the development of methods will be helpful for you to understand the important of the subject in greater perspective. The first effort of conducting systematic experimental studies in psychology was started in 1879 in Germany with the establishment of first laboratory of psychology by William Wundt. The next important method of collecting data was evolved with the development of psychoanalysis an independent system of psychology by Sigmund Freud who emphasized importance of unconscious in understanding the behavior. In the second decade of 20th century, psychology developed as an objective science of behavior by the efforts of Pavlov Watson and Guthrie.

Experimental and observation methods were developed to collect data to study behavior. Simultaneously testing movement started with the introduction of statistics in psychology. Students here we will study only the following methods of studying psychology of learning. They are:

A.   Introspection method

B.   Case Study method

B.  Observation method

C.  Experimental method

INTROSPECTION METHOD

Students at many times, when you have experienced an emotion like anger or fear you begin to think reasons for the state of yours. You say, “Why have I been annoyed over this or that? Why been afraid of such things” The analysis of your emotional state may take place simultaneously with the emotion or it may be done after the emotional state is over. In whatever manner it is done, it gives you an understanding, though rudimentary of your mind.

This method of probing into your mental processes is a method of introduction utilized by psychologists in a much-refined manner. Let us see in detail what do we mean by Introduction and its merits and demerits. What we mean by introspection is a method of self-observation. The word ‘Introspection is made up of two Latin words. “Intro” meaning ‘within’ and “Aspection” meaning ‘looking’. Hence it is a method where an individual is looking within one self.

Angel considered it as “looking inward”. In Introduction the individual peeps into his own mental state and observes his own mental processes. Stout considers that ‘to introspect is to attend to the working of one’s own mind in a systematic way’. Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about the conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process of self-examination where one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings. Let us learn this process with the help of an example, suppose you are happy and in the state of happiness you look within yourself. It is said you are introspecting your own mental feelings and examining what is going on in your mental process in the state of happiness. Similarly, you may introspect in state of anger or fear; etc. Introspection is also defined as the notice, which the mind takes of itself.

Let us see the stages distinguished in introspection. Students there are three clear stages in introspection.

1.     During the observation of external object, the person beings to ponder over his own mental states. For example While listening to the music, which is to him pleasant or unpleasant he starts thinking about his own mental state.

2.     The person begins to question the working of the own mind. He thinks and analyses: Why has he said such and such thing? Why as he talked in a particular manner? And so on.

3.     He tries to frame the laws and conditions of mental processes: He thinks in terms of improvement of his reasoning or the control of his emotional stages. This stages of that the scientific methods for the advancement of our scientific knowledge.

Characteristics of Introspection:

Introspection being self- observation has the following characteristics:

1. The subject gets direct, immediate and intuitive knowledge about the mind.

2. The subject has actually to observe his own mental processes. He cannot speculate about them. Students, Introduction Method were widely used in the past. Its use in modern time is being questioned. It is considered unscientific and not in keeping with psychology which has recently emerged out as a positive science however we may say that it is still being used by psychologists and though its supremacy is undetermined, yet it is not totally discarded.

Merits of Introspection Method:

·        It is the cheapest and most economical method. We do not need any apparatus or laboratory for its use.

·        This method can be used anytime and anywhere you can introspect while walking, traveling, and sitting on a bed and so on.

·        It is the easiest method and is readily available to the individual.

·        The introspection data are first hand as the person himself examines his own activities.

·        Introspection has generated research which gradually led to the development of more objective methods.

·        It is still used in all experimental investigation.

·        It is the only method with the help of which and individual can know his emotions and feelings.

William James has pointed out the importance of this method in these words. “Introspective observation is what we have to rely on first and foremost and always. The word introspection can hardly be defined-it means, of course, looking into our own minds and reporting what we there discover. Everyone agrees that we there discover states of consciousness. So far as I know, the existence of such states has never been doubled by my critic, however skeptical in other respects we may have been.”

Limitations of Introspection Methods:

·        In introspection, one needs to observe or examine one’s mental processes carefully in the form of thoughts, feeling and sensation. The state of one’s mental processes is continuously changing therefore when one concentrates on introspecting a particular phase of one’s mental activity that phases passes off.

(For example when you get angry at something and afterwards sit down to introspect calmly the state of anger is sure to have passed off and so what you try to observe is not what is happening at that time with yourself but what had happened sometime before.)

·        The data collected by introspection cannot be verified. An individual may not pass through the same mental state again. There is no independent way of checking the data.

·        The data collected by introspection lacks validity and reliability. It is impossible to acquire validity and exactness in self-observation of one’s own mental processes.

·        The data collected by introspection in highly subjective. It has danger of being biased and influenced by preconceptions of the individual.

·        The observer and the observed are the same. Hence there is ample scope from the individual to lie deliberately and hide the facts to mislead.

·        Introspection cannot be applied to children, animal and abnormal people. It requires highly trained and skilled workers to introspect.

·        Introspection us logically defective because one and the same person is the experience and observer. It is not possible for the same individual to act as an experienced as well as an observer. There introspection is logically defective.

CASE STUDY METHOD

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.

The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (Nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.

The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group.

Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. 

Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school. In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

In order to produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records, employer's reports, school reports or psychological test results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer, work mates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification. There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the information.

Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher.

Strengths of Case Studies

·         Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.

·         Provides insight for further research.

·         Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behaviour that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways. Research which only looks into the measurable aspects of human behaviour is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension to experience which is so important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other. The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).

Limitations of Case Studies

·         Can’t generalize the results to the wider population.

·         Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias).

·         Difficult to replicate.

·         Time consuming.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure whether the conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the study are not generalizable because we can never know whether the case we have investigated is representative of the wider body of "similar" instances

Because they are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired. This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit the particular theories about behavior (e.g. Little Hans). This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

OBSERVATION METHOD

Student we observe so many things in nature. We also observe the action and behavior of others and form our own notions about these people. We look at other persons, listen to their talks and try to infer what they mean. We try to infer the characteristics, motivations, feelings and intentions of others on the basis of these observations. So let us study about Observation method employed by psychologists in detail. With the development of psychology as an objective science of learning behavior, the method of introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behavior to collect data by research workers.

In introspection we can observe the mental process of ourselves only, but in observation, we observe the mental processes of others. Hence Observation is the most commonly used for the study of human behavior.

Meaning of Observation

Observation literally means looking outside oneself. Facts are collected by observing overt behavior of the individual in order to locate underlying problem and to study developmental trends of different types.

The overt behavior is the manifestation of court conditions within the individual. The study of overt behavior gives indirectly the clue to the mental condition of the individual. Observation means ‘perceiving the behavior as it is” In the words of Goods, “Observation deals with the overt behavior of persons in appropriate situations.” Observation has been defined as “Measurements without instruments.”

For example students in classroom have been labeled as good, fair or poor in achievement and lazy or diligent in study etc. on the basis of observation, observation is indirect approach to study the mental processes of others through observing their external behavior. For example if someone frowns, howls, grinds his teeth, closes his fists, you would say that the person is angry by only observing these external signs of his behavior. Students in the process of observation, following four steps are generally required:

1. Observation of behavior:

The first step involved in the method of observation is directly perceiving or observing the behavior of individuals under study. For example, if we want to observe the social behavior of children we can observe it when they assemble and play.

2. Recording the behavior observed:

The observation should be carefully and immediately noted and recorded. Minimum time should be allowed to pass between happening and recording. It will make the observation more objective.

3. Analysis and Interpretation of behavior:

When the notes of behavior observed are completed, they are analyzed objectively and scientifically in order to interpret the behavior patterns.

4. Generalization:

On the basis of analysis and interpretation of the data collected with the help of observation method, it is possible to make certain generalization. Social development and behavior of children have been described by child Psychologists on the basis of generalization based upon analysis and interpretation of the data gathered through the observation method.

Types of Observation:

Students you have just seen what observation is and how it is conducted. Do you know there are different ways in which observation can be done, so let us see the different types of observation?

1. Natural Observation:

In natural observation we observe the specific behavioral characteristics of children in natural setting. Subject does not become conscious of the fact that their behavior is being observed by someone.

2. Participant – Observation:

Here the observer becomes the part of the group, which he wants to observe. It discloses the minute and hidden facts.

3. Non-Participant Observation:

Here the observer observes in such a position, which is least disturbing to the subject under study, the specific behavior is observed in natural setting without subjects getting conscious that they are observed by someone. Non-participant observation permits the use of recording instruments.

4. Structured Observation:

Here the observer in relevance sets up a form and categories in terms of which he wishes to analyze the problem. The observer always keeps in view

A] A frame of reference

b] Time Units.

c] Limits of an act

5. Unstructured Observation:

This is also called as uncontrolled or free observation. It is mainly associated with participant observation in which the observer assumes the role of a member of the group to be observed. Here the individual is observed when he is in his class, playground or when he is moving about with his friends and class follows without knowing that he is being observed. Observation is very useful method to study child and his behavior. Student’s observation method, being commonly used method psychology has following merits:

Merits of Observation Method

1.     Being a record of actual behavior of the child, it is more reliable and objective.

2.     It is an excellent source of information about what actually happens in classroom.

3.     It is a study of an individual in a natural situation and is therefore more useful than the restricted study in a test situation.

4.     The method can be used with children of all ages. Younger the child, the easiest it is to observe him. This method has been found very useful with shy children.

5.     It can be used in every situation, physical- activities, and workshop and classroom situations as well.

6.     It is adaptable both to the individuals and the groups. Although observation is regarded as an efficient method for psychological studies, students yet it suffers from the following drawbacks limitations:

Limitations:

1.     There is great scope for personal prejudices and bias observed. There is some time lag of the observer. The observer’s interest, values can distort observation.

2.     Records may not be written with hundred percent accuracy as the observations are recorded after the actions are

3.     The observer may get only a small sample of study behavior. It is very difficult to observe everything that the student does or says. As far as possible observation should be made from several events.

4.     It reveals the overt behavior only- behavior that is expressed and not that is within.

5.     It lacks reliability as each natural situation can occur only once.

Students looking at the drawbacks an observation method have psychologists have suggested various guidelines to be followed for making good observation. So let us find out which are these essential guidelines for making good observation.

Essential guidelines for making good observation

1.     Observe one individual at a time. It is desirable to focus attention on just one individual at a time in order to collect comprehensive data.

2.     Have a specific criterion for making observations. The purpose of making observation should be clear to the observer before he or she begins to observe so that the essential characteristics or the behavior of the person fulfilling the purpose can be noted.

3.     Observations should be made over a period of time. To have a real estimate of the true behavior of a person it should be observed as frequently as possible. A single observation will not be sufficient to tell us that this is the characteristic of the individual.

4.     The observations should be made in differing and natural situations in natural settings to increase its validity. For example, a pupil’s behavior in the classroom may not be typical of him; therefore he should be observed in variety of settings to know the behavior most typical of the person.

5.     Observe the pupil in the context of the total situation.

6.     The observed facts must be recorded instantly, that is just at the time of their occurrence otherwise the observer may forget some of the facts and the recording may not be accurate.

7.     It is better to have two or more observers.

8.     Observations should be made under favorable conditions. The observer should be in position to clearly observe what he or she is observing. There should not be any undue distraction or disturbances. One should also have an attitude free from any biases or prejudices against the individual being observed.

9.     Data from observations should be integrated with other data. While arriving at the final conclusion about the individual, one should put together all that we know about the individual from the other sources then we can give an integrated and comprehensive picture of the individual. These precautions must be borne in mind in order to have reliable observations.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Students till now, we saw introspection method and observation method used in psychology of learning. But these methods lack scientific objectivity and validity. Experimental method is the most scientific and objective method of studying behavior. It is the method, which is responsible for assigning the status of Science to psychology. So let us learn more about this Experimental method.

In 1879, William Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig in Germany. Since then experimental method in psychology has become popular, Experimental method consists of actions of actions performed under prearranged or rigidly controlled conditions. Here the emphasis is on experimentation. Experimentation is where the investigator controls the educative factors to which a group of children are subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement.

J. W. Best describes, “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be, or what will occur under carefully controlled conditions.”

Basic concepts /essentials of experimental method

a. Experiments are always conducted in laboratory. Hence the laboratory is essential.

b. Psychological experiments performed in this method essentially require two people; the experiment or group of experimenters who perform experiment and the other is the subject or subjects on whom the experiment is performed.

c. The key factor in this method is the controlling of conditions or variables. The term ’Variable’ means that which can be varied or changed by controlling. The variables we can eliminate the irrelevant conditions and isolate the relevant ones. We thus become able to observe the causal relationship between the phenomena keeping all other conditions almost constant. Let us understand this by an example.

If we try to study the effect of intelligence on academic by the experimental method, we will need to determine the causative relation between the two phenomena (variables) - i.e. intelligence and academic achievement. One of these variables, the effect of which we want to study will be called the independent Variable and the other the dependent variable. Thus the independent variable stands for cause and the dependent variable is the effect of the cause. Other conditions like study-habits, sex, socio-eco conditions, parental education, home environment, health past learning, memory etc. which exercise a good impact upon one’s achievement besides one’s intelligence are termed “interviewing variables”. In Experimentation, all such interviewing variables are to be controlled, i.e. they are to be made constant or equalized and the effect of only one independent variable e.g. intelligence in present case, on one or more dependent variable is studied. The interviewing variables made constant, are hence called as controlled variables.

Steps in the experimental method

Students we have describe above, the basic concepts of experimental method. Here we will describe different steps, which are to be followed in conducting a typical experiment. These steps are as follows.

1. Raising a problem:

In any experiment the first steps is to identify a problem. For example it has been observed that the students cheat in the examinations. To stop it many recommend strict supervision.

But it has also been seen that even when there is strict supervision there is cheating, hence their crops up the problem of cheating under strict supervision or relaxed supervision. This problem may lead to experimentation.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis:

The next step in experimental method is the formulation of hypothesis that “Strict supervision may lead to less copying in the examination as compared to the relaxed supervision. “This hypothesis is now to be tested by experiment.

3. Making a distinction between Independent and dependent variables:

In the example given above the cheating behavior of the students will be dependent variable while the nature of supervision will be the independent variable. It is because by changing the supervision the cheating behavior is expected change. In the present experiment we manipulate the conditions of supervision in order to discover the ways in which they determine the dependent variable that is the cheating behavior. We may observe the effect of supervision in the experimental situation and also the effect of relaxed supervision under similar conditions and with the same group of students.

4. Controlling the situational variables:

The experiment will not give valid results unless the situational variables are controlled. If the experiment is conducted with different set of students who have been trained in a different manner of have a different value system then the results will be different in comparison to those who have been subjected to experiment earlier. Similarly the other conditions like the person who is supervising the place of supervision etc. have to be controlled. This means that all those conditions, which might affect the dependent variable, are to be controlled. Since in any experiment there are numerous conditions which are needed to be controlled it is many a time difficult to do so. Hence we take recourse to various types of experimental designs, which we have described earlier.

5. Analysis of the Results:

Once the experiment is concluded the results are analyzed. In our example we may apply simple percentages to find out in which type of supervision a higher percentage of students have copied. Many a times we apply more sophisticated statistics to analyze the results.

6. Verification of Hypothesis:

The last step in the experimental method is the verification of the hypothesis, which we have earlier framed. The result of the experiment exhibits whether the hypothesis which we have earlier framed. The result of the experiment exhibits whether the hypothesis is accepted of refuted. We may find that strict supervision leads to less copying. In that case we may conclude that our hypothesis is accepted. If the results are otherwise then our conclusion will be that the hypothesis is refuted.

Experimental Designs:

Students Experimental method is the most precise, planed, systematic and controlled method. It uses a systematic procedure called as experimental design. The term experimental design has two different meanings one is the experimental design which represents the six basic steps we have referred above? Followed in an experiment, the second meaning of experimental design and selecting an appropriate statistical procedure. Experimental design provides important guidelines to the researcher to carry out his research study. Experimental design ensures adequate controls by avoiding irrelevant causes of variability. The layout of a design depends on the type of the problem the investigator wants to investigate. Students you should know that, no one design solves all the problems of a research study. A variety of experimental designs have been developed by researchers in recent years. These designs differ as these are dependent upon:

a) The nature of problem

b) The situation

c) The subjects and their availability.

Let us study some of the experimental designs used while employing Experiment method. Following are the samples of experimental designs.

(A) One Group Design

1. One group posttest design: This type of design is the simple stones. It is commonly called pre-experimental design. Students in such type of experiment no formal comparison is possible for there is no second group with comparison can be made. Let us illustrate with an example: suppose a teacher treats 10 students who are addicted to smoking in a period of three months. At the end of the period six students give up smoking. Such type of designs does not control any of the sources of invalidity.

2. One group pretest-posttest design: This is also simple design and is considered to be a rather poor design though better than one group posttest design. In this design the experimenter first tests a group on some aspects of behavior and then gives special treatment. He statistically analyses the data and calculates the difference between the pretest and posttest scores of the group.

The paradigm of the design is as follows: Pretest Independent variable PosttestT1 X T2Example, Suppose in the beginning of the semester, we administer test of educational psychology to students of MA education and then we teach them the subject throughout the semester. At the end of the semester we administer posttest (T2), and find out the difference between the scores on the initial and final tests.

(B) Two Group Designs

Researches in education and psychology have often been criticized of being loosely controlled. In recent year more rigorous designs have been evolved by using statistics to make researches more scientific more scientific and objective. Generally researchers use two parallel group techniques to see the effects of an independent variable on some dependent variable. Two groups are equated on the basis of significant variable. One group called experimental and the other is called control group. The experimental group is subjected to a certain experience or to a specific treatment whereas the control group is not given any type of special treatment. After providing special treatment to the experimental group, both the groups are administered the same final test. The scores are statistically compared and conclusions are drawn as regards the effect of special treatment on the experimental group.

1. Randomized Control Group Pretest Posttest Design: The researcher in this design follows the procedure as given below.

v He selects subject by random method.

v Assigns subjects to groups and X (Treatment) to groups by random method.

v Tests the Ss on the dependent variable.

v Keep all conditions the same for both the groups except for exposing the experimental but not the control group to the independent variable for a specific time.

v Test the ‘Ss’ on the dependent variable.

v Finds the difference between the two.

v Compares the results to see whether the application of ‘X’ (treatment) caused a change in the experimental group.

v Applies an appropriate statistical procedure.

2. Matched two group designs. A matched two group design is a modification of the totally randomized two group design described above. In this design, both groups are matched in terms of some variable, the experimenter feels he would influence the dependent variable. Suppose we want to test the retention of two types of words closely associated and disassociated. We believe that I. Q. Will influence how well a person can retain words so we match the two groups on I. Q. Let us be more concrete to understand this point.

(C) Multi group Design with one Independent Variable (ANOVA)

Two group paradigms are most common in education and psychology but events in nature do not always conveniently order into two groups. Sometimes the investigator has to compare the effect of different values of some variable or has to see the effect of several alternative variables on more than two groups. The procedure for carrying out one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is the same as for two group design. The distinguishing feature between the two types of investigation is the type of statistical analysis used.

(D) Factorial Design

Factorial design is employed more than one independent variables are involved in the investigation. Factorial designs may involve several factors.

(E) Small N Design

We have briefly mentioned various experimental designs which are termed as large N group designs. In all large N group designs, the number of subject in classroom situation. In many instances, the psychologist or teacher is faced with situations in which large N is not possible, for example delinquency, problem of indiscipline etc. with the introduction of statistics in psychology, it is possible to conduct scientific research on small N group.

Merits of experimental method

Experimental method being most precise and scientific has following merits:

1.     Experimental method is the most systematic method or getting reliable data.

2.     Experimental method enables accurate observations due to controlled conditions.

3.     It allows us to establish cause effect relationship between different phenomena.

4.     The results obtained are valid and reliable.

5.     The findings of the experimental method are verifiable by other experiments under identical conditions.

6.     It helps to protect from the subjective opinions. Hence it provides objective information about the problem.

7.     It provides adequate information about the problem.

8.     In experimental method experiments are conducted under vigorously controlled conditions. The experimenter can control the application and withdrawal of independent variables.

9.     Experimental method increases ones knowledge or psychological facts in child psychology, social and abnormal psychology. It is rightly said the experimental method has made psychology a science.

Demerits of the method

Experimental method suffers from various following demerits:

1.     Experimental method is costly and time consuming method as it requires a laboratory and apparatus to conduct it properly.

2.     Experiments are conducted in artificially determined pattern of behavior. In real life situation it is quite different.

3.     It needs specialized knowledge and therefore every teacher cannot be expected to conduct the experiment.

4.     The scope is limited. All problems of psychology cannot be studied by this method as we cannot perform experiments for all the problems that may come up in the diverse subject matter of psychology.

5.     Accurate measurements in case of human beings are never possible.

6.     It is difficult to always control the independent variable therefore it is not possible to create desired conditions in laboratory.

7.     It is not possible to reach certainty in matters of social science s including educational psychology.

Conclusion:

Students we have learnt in the above chapter the four methods of studying psychology of learning. But which of the above discussed methods is the best among other four is a difficult question to be answered. All the four methods have their strengths and weakness and possess some unique characteristics, which make them highly specific for use in a particular situation. A wise psychologist should have a keen insight into the nature of his subjects as well as the conditions affecting his work and accordingly select a proper method or methods for the objectives. Study of the behavior of his subjects much depends upon the sincerity, honesty, ability and experience of the investigator, who should always try to keep himself as scientific and objective as possible and leave no stone unturned for the overall analysis for the behavior of the subject or nature of the phenomena of the study.