DEVELOPMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, EMOTIONAL AND
SOCIAL ASPECTS
Children
and adolescents grow and develop at very different rates. Each individual is
unique, with a distinct personality and life experience. For this reason, age
is not the only sign of where a particular child or adolescent is in terms of
development. The different aspects of development are as follows.
1.
Physical development – genetic make-up, ethnicity, race,
gender, nutrition and diet, exercise, sleep patterns, use of tobacco, alcohol
or other drugs, stress and stressful life events, environmental toxins and
socioeconomic status
2.
Cognitive development – academic setting, family
environment, parent or caregiver involvement, access to early education
opportunities, teacher support, personal motivation, gender and cultural or
ethnic context
3.
Emotional development – individual temperament, parent and
family relationships, support network, life experiences and transitions; media
exposure and influence and a tendency toward risk-taking or delinquent
behaviors
4.
Social development – peer influence, popularity, community and societal context
I.
Developmental Characteristics of Infancy (Birth to 2 Years)
Physical Development
The
development of control and mastery over one's own body in both gross and fine
motor skills is the infant's primary physical task, culminating toward the end
of the first year in walking. The infant perfects the gross and fine motor
skills that emerged during the first year by developing balance, coordination,
stability, and an improved ability to manipulate objects.
Cognitive Development
Cognition
begins with alertness, awareness, recognition, and interest in visual,
auditory, and tactile (touch) stimuli. As motor development improves, the
infant begins to explore and manipulate objects and develops a rudimentary
understanding of their properties. Infants develop object permanence toward
the end of the first year. The emergence of symbolic thought is central to
cognitive development. This results in the ability to understand and produce
language.
Social Development
The
most important social task is the development of attachment to the primary
caretaker, most often the child's mother. The child develops affectionate and
trusting relationships with other family members and with adults outside the
family. The child can also be engaged in simple games and play.
Emotional Development
The
development of basic trust, a derivative of the positive attachment between the
infant and the primary caretaker, occurs during the first year. This is a
cornerstone of emotional development.
The
primary developmental task involves the development of autonomy, which includes
mastery and control over oneself and one's environment. Children develop a
rudimentary self-concept, experiencing pride and pleasure at being
"good" and embarrassment, shame, and distress at being
"bad."
II.
Developmental Characteristics of Early Childhood (2-6 Years)
Physical Development
The
child develops increased strength and uses motor skills to master challenges in
the environment, such as bicycles, stairs, balls, playground equipment, eating
utensils, crayons, and other objects. The child is developmentally ready to
master toilet training.
Most
basic gross motor abilities have emerged. Existing skills are practiced and
perfected, and the child develops mastery in applying motor skills to
increasingly challenging and complex situations.
Cognitive Development
Perfection
of language skills and the use of language to communicate with others is the
principle cognitive task. Language develops rapidly. Grammar and syntax are
refined, and vocabulary increases geometrically. The child uses language as a
communication tool. Thinking is concrete and egocentric in nature. Problem
solving is illogical and magical thinking and fantasies are prevalent.
Social Development
The
child develops rudimentary relationships with other children, which are usually
characterized by "parallel play," that is playing in the presence of,
rather than in interaction with, other children. Children also begin to imitate
social roles at this time.
Toilet
training represents a significant internalization of social rules and
expectations. The child expands social relationships outside the family and
develops interactive and cooperative play skills with peers. The child begins
to understand, explore, imitate, and practice social roles. The child learns
concepts of "right" and "wrong" and begins to understand
the nature of rules. He experiences guilt when he has done something wrong.
Emotional Development
The
preschool child has been described as "on the make."Erikson refers to
the child's primary mode of operation during this stage as initiative. The
child is intrusive, takes charge, is very curious and continually tries new
things, actively manipulates the environment, and is self-directed in many
activities. The child's ability to understand "right" and
"wrong" leads to self-assessments and affects the development of
self-esteem.
III.
Developmental Characteristics of Late Childhood (Age 6-12 Years)
Physical Development
The
child practices, refines, and masters complex gross and fine motor and
perceptual-motor skills.
Cognitive Development
Concrete
operational thinking replaces egocentric cognition. The child's thinking
becomes more logical and rational. The child develops the ability to understand
others' perspectives.
Social Development
Relationships
outside the family increase in importance, including the development of
friendships and participation in a peer group. The child imitates, learns, and
adopts age appropriate social roles, including those that are gender-specific.
The child develops an understanding of rules. Rules are relied upon to dictate
proper social behavior and to govern social relationships and activities.
Emotional Development
The
child is industrious, purposeful, and goal directed in her activities. She is confident
and self-directed. The child is developing a better sense of herself as an
individual, with likes and dislikes and special areas of skill. She is capable
of introspection. The child evaluates her worth by her ability to perform.
Self-esteem is largely derived from one's perceived abilities.
IV.
Developmental Characteristics of Adolescence (Age 12-18 Years)
Physical Development
Physiological
changes at puberty promote rapid growth, the maturity of sexual organs, and
development of secondary sex characteristics.
Cognitive Development
During
early adolescence, precursors to formal operational thinking appear, including
a limited ability to think hypothetically and to take multiple perspectives.
During middle and late adolescence, formal operational thinking becomes well
developed and integrated in a significant percentage of adolescents.
Social Development
Social
relationships in early adolescence are centered in the peer group. Group values
guide individual behavior. Acceptance by peers is critical to self-esteem. Most
peer relationships are still same-sex.
Young
adolescents become interested in sexual relationships, but most contact is
through groups. Some youth may begin to experiment with sexual behavior, but
many early adolescents are not sexually active with other youth. Social roles
are still largely defined by external sources.
During
middle and late adolescence, values become individualized and internalized
after careful consideration and independent thought.
Friends
are more often selected on personal characteristics and mutual interests. The
peer group declines in importance, individual friendships are strengthened, and
more youth "date" in one-on-one relationships. The youth experiments
with social roles and explores options for career choice.
Emotional Development
The
early adolescent is strongly identified with the peer group. Youth depend upon
their peers for emotional stability and support and to help mold the youth's
emerging identity. Self-esteems greatly affected by acceptance of peers.
Early
adolescents are emotionally labile with exaggerated affect and frequent mood
swings. They are very vulnerable to emotional stress.
During
middle and late adolescence, identity is more individualized, and a sense of
self develops and stabilizes that is separate from either family or peer group.
Self-esteem is influenced by the youth's ability to live up to internalized
standards for behavior. Self-assessment and introspection are common.
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